from FPGA Design Elements by Charles Eric LaForest, PhD.
This is a continually evolving document. Please send any feedback to eric@fpgacpu.ca or @elaforest or join the Discord server.
Over time, I've found that most of the difficulty with Verilog is a problem with programming practice which goes away with a certain coding style, which I describe here. It's not perfect, but it works and makes Verilog programming easier, more pleasant, and more reliable.
It matters to have a Verilog coding standard, because Verilog doesn't matter. We want to quickly get past the nuts-and-bolts of Verilog itself so we can focus on the system we are trying to build. I describe the related system design practice in the companion System Design Standard.
This standard was written with FPGAs in mind so some details may not apply, or may be missing, in relation to ASICs. Nonetheless, the standard should still largely be applicable to ASIC design.
This standard mainly defines a restricted form of Verilog which uses a limited number of programming idioms. These restrictions reduce bugs, make the code easier to understand, and aim to give consistent synthesis results across CAD tools, whether the code is manually written or machine-generated.
This standard does not define any typesetting conventions such as brace style, indentation, variable naming, comment format, etc... You will see code examples typeset in a style I recommend, but it is not essential. Like regular written language prose, anything that helps readability is good.
Nor does this standard define any testing, simulation, verification, or validation methodologies (though I hope you have some!). However, it will address some pitfalls and low-level details.
Finally, this standard assumes you are already familiar with Verilog and digital design in general. It is not a language or tool reference.
Use Verilog-2001, specifically its synthesizable subset, as it's well supported across CAD tools. Anything not synthesizable is for simulation/verification and outside the scope of this standard.
The previous version, Verilog-1995, lacks several useful features (named port connections, vector part select, generate blocks, etc...) without which your code will get longer and more difficult. Avoid mixing Verilog-1995 forms into Verilog-2001 code, despite the backwards compatibility.
The following version, SystemVerilog, brings in too many features and thus has uneven support across CAD tools. It does have desirable features (interfaces, parameterizable port instances, structs, enums, etc...), but until support matures and a similarly restricted, synthesizable subset can be agreed upon, it should be avoided or used for simulation/verification (which it is well suited for!).
Use `include directives only to bring in common function
definitions which, due to a limitation of Verilog-2001, must be defined inside
the body of a module. A common example is an integer logarithm function to
calculate address width. Place the function in a separate file and include it
at the start of the body of modules which need it.
Use `define directives only for values which remain valid and
constant everywhere and always in the design, don't depend on any
other less-constant values, and can't be passed as module parameters (e.g.:
opcode encodings for ALU functional units). Place these definitions into a
separate file and `include it at the beginning of files which need
them. Otherwise, construct constants within a module using
localparam.
All variables, modules, constants, etc... must be defined before they are used in a file, going from top to bottom. If you have a wire connecting the output of a later module to the input of an earlier module, define the wire first, before the earliest module using it.
Use `default_nettype none at the start of each file, before
module definition. This causes any undefined variable to be an error.
Otherwise, accidentally undefined variables become 1-bit wires, which may cause
subtle bugs during synthesis.
For code you cannot control which assumes a default net type (e.g. vendor-provided models and IP blocks), wrap the code as follows inside the provided source file:
`default_nettype wire ... `default_nettype none
Use only reg and wire types. All signals are
registers except where a wire is mandatory: module input ports, connecting
module ports together, and inferring tri-state I/O. (See Assign Statements for details.)
Only use 0,1,X,Z values, and avoid X and Z if at all possible.
Do not assign X to registers or wires, as X propagation will make testing
difficult, and isn't supported in 2-state simulators (e.g.: Verilator).
Instead, have a default catch-all or fall-through logic expression which takes
effect when all others don't. The same idea applies to Boolean tests. Z is only
used to define tri-state I/O, and only if the CAD vendor does not provide
tri-state I/O primitives, as the inference is unreliable.
All registers must be initialized (and reset, if necessary) with a value
which does not contain X or Z, either at definition or using an
initial block. Note that some combinations of register reset and
initialization may not work well together depending on the FPGA family. See Resets for details.
Never assign an initial value to wires, either using an explicit assign statement or an implicit initial assignment (e.g.:
wire foo = bar;). Assigning a wire an initial value can cause
problem if you then mistakenly connect that wire to a module port output,
leading to multiple drivers on the wire and surprise X's in your simulation.
This situation easily happens if you convert a reg to a
wire, because the signal source is now in a module, and you forget
to remove the initial assignment on the reg (usually a zero).
Wherever possible, parameterize the width of your variables rather than using constants. It's more work initially, but makes modules more general and avoids tedious and error-prone edits when something inevitably changes. If the width can be set by the user, then use a module parameter. If it's an internal module constant, use a localparam. Very, very rarely, use a `define constant. Never use a hardcoded literal integer: name it with a localparam instead.
Unfortunately, in Verilog-2001, module parameters and localparams are not
valid width specifiers for literal values, only `define constants and literal
integers are. This makes initializing registers of parameterized width with
values of the exact same width impossible, and it's unclear if the implicit
width-extension for values like 'b0 or 'd1 work
correctly past 32 or 64 bits width, depending on the CAD tool. As a workaround,
use concatenation and replication to create the value you need of the proper
bit width.
Also note that localparam is not legal in the ports definition of a module definition. That's only in SystemVerilog. Thus, if you need a constant parameter for a port width or some other parameter calculation, you have to use a parameter, and leave a comment that it should not be set at module instantiation.
// This is 32-bits by default
localparam WORD_WIDTH = 72;
// Also legal to define bit width
localparam [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] WORD_CONSTANT = `SOME_DEFINED_CONSTANT;
// Not legal
reg [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] foo = WORD_WIDTH'b0;
// Legal workarounds
localparam WORD_ZERO = {WORD_WIDTH{1'b0}};
localparam WORD_ONE = {{WORD_WIDTH-1{1'b0}},1'b1};
localparam WORD_MINUS_ONE = ~WORD_ZERO;
reg [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] foo = WORD_ZERO;
// Simpler, but unclear if extended with zeros or Xs past 32 or 64 bits
reg [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] foo = 'b0;
reg [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] foo = 'd42;
// Sometimes you have to clip at the point of use
localparam NARROW_ZERO = {NARROW_WIDTH{1'b0}};
reg [NARROW_WIDTH-1:0] bar = NARROW_ZERO;
always @(*) begin
bar = WORD_CONSTANT [NARROW_WIDTH-1:0];
end
Always match bit widths of variable assignments. Even with correct implicit zero/sign-extension, if the source and sink have different width, it will raise a pointless warning in the CAD tool, obscuring other more important warnings. And if the extension is incorrect, it will cause subtle bugs. As before, concatenation and replication can avoid this problem, and then any bit width mismatch warnings become significant.
// Common
localparam SOURCE_WIDTH = 32;
localparam SINK_WIDTH = 16;
localparam SOURCE_ZERO = {SOURCE_WIDTH{1'b0}};
localparam SINK_ZERO = {SINK_WIDTH{1'b0}};
reg [SOURCE_WIDTH-1:0] source = SOURCE_ZERO;
reg [SINK_WIDTH-1:0] sink = SINK_ZERO;
// Zero extension
always @(*) begin
sink = {SOURCE_ZERO, source};
end
// Signed extension
reg source_sign = 1'b0;
// Not a localparam since it's not a constant value
always @(*) begin
source_sign = source[SOURCE_WIDTH-1];
sink = {{SOURCE_WIDTH{source_sign}}, source};
end
Use concatenations to pack/unpack values instead of selecting ranges of bits, as possible. Concatenating ranges of bits also works. This idiom is very useful to meaningfully extract fields from raw data words (and to concisely document the field format), to group related signals into a single wide pipeline stage register, or to do fixed permutations of bits.
localparam A_WIDTH = 1;
localparam B_WIDTH = 2;
localparam C_WIDTH = 3;
localparam PACK_WIDTH = A_WIDTH + B_WIDTH + C_WIDTH;
reg [A_WIDTH-1:0] foo;
reg [B_WIDTH-1:0] bar;
reg [C_WIDTH-1:0] baz;
reg [PACK_WIDTH-1:0] all;
// Pack fields into a word
always @(*) begin
all = {foo,bar,baz};
end
// Unpack the fields
always @(*) begin
{foo,bar,baz} = all;
end
When defining a module, give all parameters a default value of zero or an empty string, to both tell the user what kind of value is expected, and also make module elaboration fail if any of the parameters are not set at module instantiation.
Use module parameters to define the bit widths of the module ports, as localparams can only be defined in a module body, which is too late. If a width is globally constant, or calculated from other module parameters and not directly provided by the user, then use another module parameter to compute and hold the value, and place a comment noting that this parameter is not to be used at module instantiation. This is commonly done when a parameterized number of items are passed to a module via concatenation, since Verilog-2001 ports are always present (no conditional instantiation) and simple bit vectors (no arrays of items).
Always define the direction (input, output, inout), type
(wire or reg), and name of each module port to reduce
boilerplate code, hint at the structure of the module to help the user, and to
avoid some synthesis and simulation problems:
If you have any register output ports, use an initial block
immediately after the module port definitions to initialize them to their
startup value, as ports cannot be initialized at definition like register
variables.
`default_nettype none
module Foo
#(
parameter INPUT_WIDTH = 0,
parameter INPUT_COUNT = 0,
// Do not set at instantiation (localparam only legal here in SystemVerilog)
parameter TOTAL_WIDTH = INPUT_WIDTH * INPUT_COUNT,
parameter CONST_WIDTH = `SOME_GLOBAL_WIDTH
)
(
input wire clock,
input wire [TOTAL_WIDTH-1:0] this_input,
output wire [CONST_WIDTH-1:0] that_output,
output reg another_output,
...
);
initial begin
another_output = 1'b0;
end
...
endmodule
When a module is moderately complicated and the clearest name of an internal signal does not match the module port name it connects to, decouple the names as follows, assuming you already haven't implicitly done so via a final pipeline register stage.
// Port must be a reg type instead of wire, which denotes a special case to the reader,
// and must be initial'ized for proper simulation.
always @(*) begin
port_name = internal_name;
end
Use port name suffixes to denote if they are inputs or outputs only when
there is unavoidable ambiguity (usually for very simple modules with
data_in and data_out ports or similar). See a note by
@tom_verbeure on why _o and _i port name suffixes
can cause problems.
Although it works in Verilog, and would be a great match for simple modules with well-defined functionality, don't name any ports "in" or "out". Those names are reserved words in VHDL, and Vivado's IP Integrator will reject those names in Verilog source, even if legal. By extension, avoid reserved words in both VHDL and Verilog for naming ports, variables, etc...
Avoid the use of assign statements, except where demanded by
Verilog, as their use makes it hard to see the underlying design, and make the
implementation hard to control for size and performance. I have seen assigns
used as global variables all over a module, and all too often, as an amorphous
large number of assigns to describe the logic followed by a single always block
to register all the outputs. (See also Initialization and
Logic Values for other assignment cases to avoid.)
There are exactly two cases where you must use assign:
Inferring a tri-state I/O like this may fail if the module is not at the top-level of the design. I have been bitten by this in Vivado, where it created an AND gate instead of a tri-state buffer. Thus, if possible, implement the I/O blocks directly using the CAD vendor modules, which will instantiate correctly regardless of location in the design hierarchy. This is also a reason why FPGA-specific I/O ports should be instantiated in their own enclosing Adapter module.
localparam WORD_WIDTH = 36;
localparam WORD_TRISTATE = {WORD_WIDTH{1'bZ}};
reg [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] data_out;
reg output_enable;
wire [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] tristate_bus;
assign tristate_bus = (output_enable == 1'b1) ? data_out : WORD_TRISTATE;
generate block is conditionally instantiated,
and you must connect the dangling wires from the rest of the system to
something when it is not instantiated.
For synchronous designs, there are only two events normally needed to
trigger an always block: @(posedge clock) (clocked)
and @(*) (combinational). The only use of @(negedge
clock) is for capturing incoming I/O data which is sent out on the
posedge of the I/O clock, so as to sample the data close the center (in the
absence of programmable delay lines on the I/O). The one exception where
posedge and negedge logic may be (carefully!) mixed is in Clock Domain Crossing
(CDC) circuits.
The repeated dogma about Verilog assignments is exactly correct:
=) in always @(*) (combinational) blocks.
<=) in always @(posedge clock) blocks.
Blocking assignments should only be used in combinational blocks, despite being legal when used with clocked logic, for two reasons:
Non-blocking assignments should only be used in clocked always blocks, as simulators may disagree on the interpretation or disallow the usage of non-blocking assignments in combinational always blocks, yielding inconsistent simulations across simulators, and maybe with synthesis results also. For example, see the COMBDLY warning explanation in Verilator.
Do not mix blocking and non-blocking assignments within an always block. It's legal (unless they assign to the same register!), but not necessary and error-prone.
For further blocking/non-blocking assignment code examples and explanations (particularly for the Verilog event scheduling model), Clifford E. Cummings' dramatically-titled "Nonblocking Assignments in Verilog Synthesis, Coding Styles That Kill!" is a good, clear read.
Blocking assignments (=) enable a very useful and specific
design idiom: to break-down complex logic into simpler expressions we can then
think about sequentially and re-use as necessary.
Backward Dependencies: if you find you have a
backwards dependency between blocking assignments (an earlier line depends on a
later line), then either re-order the assignments, or split one assignment off
into its own always() block. Otherwise, the simulation and
synthesis will still be correct, but they may not match anymore. You will see
functionally correct behaviour in your simulations that does not match the
hardware, such as signals not changing when they should when they otherwise
have no effect on the calculations.
Thus, while simple logic can be correctly computed and assigned in a single line in a clocked always block, it's often clearer to implement more complex logic in a combinational block using blocking assignments and then register the results in an immediately following clocked always block using non-blocking assignments.
Given the above design rules, it's easy to selectively pipeline logic by having the second always block be clocked or not (and the assignments changed to match), without altering the logic or the layout of the code. It also gives an easy way to estimate how much logic will be placed between registers, and thus get an early grasp on critical paths.
// Breaking down nested ternary operators into two simpler lines,
// with unrelated and parallel logic alongside.
always @(*) begin
part_one = (cond1 == 1'b1) ? foo : bar;
part_two = (cond2 == 1'b0) ? baz : part_one;
other_result = wibble1 ^ wibble2;
end
// If we don't want to register these values,
// simply change the block trigger to @(*),
// and the assignments to blocking (=).
always @(posedge clock) begin
part_two_reg <= part_two;
other_result_reg <= other_result;
another_result <= blob1 & blob2;
end
A generate block is used to iteratively or conditionally instantiate
entire modules or always blocks inside of it. For iteration, the index variable
must be a genvar, which should be declared inside the generate
block for clarity and to avoid re-using it elsewhere. A generate block does
not enclose a genvar inside its scope.
If you need to iteratively create assignments, such as replicating the same
logic for multiple ports, then you do not need a generate block, and can use a
for loop inside an always block. Doing it this way is also necessary
sometimes if the logic may appear to cause conflicting updates to the same
variables. Synthesis tools expect all such assignments to be inside the same
always block, else the indeterminate scheduling of independent always blocks
prevents synthesis, and would make simulation non-deterministic. The index
variable of the for loop must be an integer, declared outside the
for loop and never re-used elsewhere.
Do not re-use genvar or integer index variables, as this may not be simulatable. For example, re-using index variables in Icarus led to strange, and silent, simulation failures where for loops ceased to function. I do not know if this is an Icarus bug, or a known behaviour of the Verilog simulation model. Thus, declare each index variable right before the for loop using it, and never re-use it again in any other for loop.
Express Boolean values behaviourally as equality/inequality tests against
the expected value, which clarifies the intent of the code, removes the need to
understand the polarity of each logic signal, and makes the bit width explicit,
which will avoid some bugs and warnings. If you must invert a comparison, be
sure to use the logical negation operator (!), which always
returns 1 bit, rather than the bitwise negation (~) of all bits.
// Rather than this
always @(*) begin
C = A & ~B;
end
// Do this
always @(*) begin
C = (A == 1'b1) && (B == 1'b0);
end
Unless otherwise necessary, use ternary operators (?:) instead
of if/else statements. There are four main reasons:
// Given the following...
reg foo = 1'bX;
reg [1:0] bar = 2'b00;
// Here, in simulation, foo takes on 2'b10, not 2'bXX
always @(*) begin
if (foo == 1b'1) begin
bar = 2'b01;
end
else begin
bar = 2'b10;
end
end
// Here, in simulation, foo takes 2'bXX
always @(*) begin
bar = (foo == 1'b1) ? 2'b01 : 2'b10;
end
On the other hand, if/else is necessary to conditionally instantiate logic
in generate blocks, required by some vendor code templates to
infer specific hardware, and unavoidable for some reset code.
Never nest ternary operators, where one term of a ternary operator is itself a ternary operator. That make for unreadable code. Instead, split the logic into two blocking assignments, with the second ternary operator using the output of the first as one of its terms. This style gives you useful intermediate value signals during simulation, extends to an arbitrary number of expressions which we can easily reason about in sequence, and becomes a useful programming pattern for FSMs and other complex logic.
// Rather than this...
always @(*) begin
result = (foo == 1'b1) ? ((bar == 1'b1) ? A : B) : C;
end
// ...do this!
always @(*) begin
partial = (bar == 1'b1) ? A : B;
result = (foo == 1'b1) ? partial : C;
end
When desiging logic, keep track of how many unique inputs are needed to generate the output, and match that to the target FPGA Look-Up Tables (LUTs). For example, if the FPGA has 6-input LUTs (6-LUTs), then any logic expression of up to 6 terms can (and usually will) map to a single 6-LUT per bit of output width. If you construct your logic as series of expressions of 6 or fewer terms with registers in between, then you minimize the logic and interconnect delay, and give the CAD tool more freedom to place and route.
Keeping the number of unique input terms in mind particularly applies to multiplexers. A 4:1 mux has 6 inputs terms (4 input bits and 2 selector bits) and so maps exactly to one 6-LUT per result bit, and can be registered "for free". If you want to maximize speed, be wary of multiplexers wider than 8:1, and avoid designing logic as a single large selection from many options: better to pipeline a sequence of smaller selections.
I'm glossing over fracturable LUTs and logic packing here, but those are things we can usually take for granted from the CAD tool.
Separate your FSM from your data processing, which also enables you to break a larger FSM into smaller ones. For example, each datapath can have its own FSM to perform transactions, and these FSMs can be in turn controlled by another FSM which deals with error-recovery.
In other words, don't place the state and data processing logic together
into a single large case statement, with one case per FSM state,
and nested if/else statements inside each case to handle the input/output
control signals. Figuring out all possible state transitions and control
signals, and eliminating redundant and illegal ones, isn't practical past
simple cases, and can lead to lots of seemingly arbitrary code the next reader
has to reverse-engineer back into a state diagram.
Instead, take advantage of the sequential ordering of blocking assignments and of ternary operators, using the idiom of starting with a register and sequentially testing and passing along its updated value in a combinational always block, and registering the updated value in an immediately following clocked always block. If none of the conditions are met, the register remains unchanged.
Then, using this idiom, describe the possible states of the datapath (independent of control), build up definitions of the basic datapath operations (independent of state) and of the allowed transformations on the datapath (as operations and the states they may occur in), and then express the state transition and control signal logic in terms of those datapath transformations. This approach describes the FSM at a higher level and reduces code duplication, making it easier to read, debug, and maintain. Expect to need a larger than usual number of comments in your FSM, as it depends on an external context (the datapath) to be meaningful.
To see these idioms used to create a small but non-trivial FSM, have a look at the Skid Buffer module.
(Resets are one place where FPGA and ASIC design practices diverge. You are also better off encapsulating all the issues discussed below inside a Register module)
Make use of the implicit power-on-reset in FPGAs, limit the number of things which need an explicit asynchronous reset signal, and feed reset from a signal synchronous to the clock. This means passing an external reset through a CDC Synchronizer and ensuring a sufficient reset time.
On FPGAs, the hardware reset of a flip-flop is usually asynchronous and so takes effect immediately rather than at the next clock edge, which can cause subtle bugs: a register appears to fail to capture data in behavioural simulation, or changes in impossible ways (within less than a clock cycle) in timing-annotated post-synthesis simulation.
If you need to reset during normal operation, use a separate synchronous "clear" signal controlling the data into the flip-flop. This may create extra logic, but that logic gets folded into other logic feeding data to the register, and would have been necessary anyway.
True asynchronous resets are an exception when a clock isn't yet available (e.g.: PLL reset), or when the synchronous control logic is wedged.
The configuration bitstream of an FPGA includes the initial state of all
registers and (most) on-chip memories, so most logic does not require a reset
signal to properly start operating. See Ken Chapman's Get
Smart About Reset: Think Local, Not Global for details. Set the initial
state of registers by assigning it at declaration, or assigning it inside an
initial block for module register output ports. Most on-chip
memories can be similarly initialized with a known content via a
$readmemh() directive, or some code in an initial
block. Refer to the Single Port RAM code
for an example of on-chip memory initialization.
Fortunately, asynchronous resets to registers are rare, and not a good thing in general (they inhibits register retiming, which enables simpler, faster designs). So register initialization still works, except where you need an explicit asynchronous reset.Perhaps a better point against reg initialisation at declaration is its inconsistency across chips - not all FPGAs support all combinations of init and reset. FPGA flops can very roughly be split into four categories:This means you can write a register init declaration which, when combined with an asynchronous set/reset wire, is impossible to directly satisfy in hardware. However, synchronous sets/resets can be emulated via input logic, so a global synchronous reset can always be implemented.
- not initialisable (QuickLogic EOS S3)
- constant zero (Intel Cyclone V; Lattice iCE40)
- fully configurable (Xilinx 7 Series)
- init-matches-set (Lattice ECP5)
The common idiom for resets uses an if/else statement, where each register must be assigned a value in both clauses (else a latch may be synthesized), which means all registers must be reset, maximizing the size of the reset tree, which uses more routing and makes timing harder to meet.
// Common idiom, which has a problem...
always @(posedge clock) begin
if (reset == 1'b1) begin
foo <= FOO_RESET;
bar <= BAR_RESET; // but does not need a reset!
end
else begin
foo <= foo_next;
bar <= bar_next;
end
end
If you must reset some registers, use one of the following idioms instead to minimize the size of the reset tree:
// Ternary operator assignment for reset
always @(posedge clock) begin
foo <= (reset == 1'b1) ? FOO_RESET : foo_next;
bar <= bar_next
end
// Using "last assignment wins" semantics for reset
always @(posedge clock) begin
foo <= foo_next;
bar <= bar_next;
if (reset == 1'b1) begin
foo <= FOO_RESET;
end
end
Credit for the "last assignment wins" idiom goes to Olof Kindgren (@olofkindgren): Resetting reset handling. This idiom also applies to VHDL.
Alse see this twitter thread which discusses a subtlety of "last assignment wins" which explains a subtlety of non-blocking assignments and ternary operators. Credit to Claire Wolf (@oe1cxw).
On FPGAs, the flip-flop reset hardware is asynchronous, and this causes difficulties when inferring flip-flops with clock_enables from Verilog code. The "last assignment wins" idiom to implement reset doesn't work here: having two separate if-statements (one for clock_enable followed by one for reset) does not work when the reset is asynchronously specified alongside the clock in the sensitivity list (as shown below), as there is no way to determine which signal in the sensitivity list each if statement should respond to.
Thus, correct flip-flop hardware inference depends on explicitly expressing the priority of the reset over the clock_enable structurally with nested if-statements, rather than implicitly through the Verilog event queue via the "last assignment wins" idiom.
This is very likely the *only* place you will ever need an asynchronous signal in a sensitivity list, or express explicit structural priority.
Also, even though the flip-flop reset hardware is asynchronous, it should be fed by a synchronous reset signal, otherwise if the flip-flop was not already at zero, it may flip to zero at a time such that the signal change reaches the next flip-flops down the line within their metastability window.
`default_nettype none
module Register
#(
parameter WORD_WIDTH = 0,
parameter RESET_VALUE = 0
)
(
input wire clock,
input wire clock_enable,
input wire areset,
input wire clear,
input wire [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] data_in,
output reg [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] data_out
);
initial begin
data_out = RESET_VALUE;
end
reg [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] selected = RESET_VALUE;
always @(*) begin
selected = (clear == 1'b1) ? RESET_VALUE : data_in;
end
always @(posedge clock or posedge areset) begin
if (areset == 1'b1) begin
data_out <= RESET_VALUE;
end
else begin
if ((clock_enable == 1'b1) || (clear == 1'b1)) begin
data_out <= selected;
end
end
end
endmodule
Various parts of a design may have to stay in reset for a minimum amount of time to properly initialize (e.g.: 200us for DDR2 RAM), and have to come out of reset in a certain order to avoid receiving undefined signals. You can sequence the resets by creating delayed copies of the power-on-reset with a few counters driven by the main clock, with the count values set as top-level design module parameters.
In simulation, a race condition can exist at time zero between the initial value assignment of a register and the first clock edge. For example:
reg clock = 1'b0; // Counts as a negedge at time zero! (X -> 0)
reg foo = 1'b0; // Also does X -> 0 at time zero.
// Simulate the clock
always begin
#`HALF_PERIOD clock = ~clock;
end
// It is unclear if the clock edge or the "foo" initialization will happen first,
// so "bar" can get X for one simulation cycle...
always @(negedge clock) begin
bar <= foo;
end
This race condition is another reason to only use @(posedge
clock) in internal logic, but the same race condition will happen if the
simulation clock happens to be initialized to 1'b1.
Instead, the following clock generation idiom (credit: Claire Wolf (@oe1cxw)) avoids the race condition by
making use of undefined values and the identity operator (===)
instead of the equality (==) operator:
// NOTE: clock is left uninitialized, and thus X in most simulators, and will
// not trigger a (X -> 0) edge until after the simulated clock half-period delay.
always begin
#`HALF_PERIOD clock = (clock === 1'b0);
end
The Simulation Clock module implements this idiom.
When a combinational procedural block contains only constant values on the right hand side, your linter and/or simulator may raise warnings. For example:
reg foo;
always @(*) begin
foo = 1'b0;
end
Since there can be no clock edge event or value change event of a right hand
side value to trigger the procedural block, it is possible that the assignment
never happens, depending on the interpretation of the CAD tool. This example is
contrived, but such a situation will occur if you have a module output port
which is both a register and outputs a constant. Since you cannot initialize a
register in a port definition, you must instead set the constant value in an
initial block, or at an extreme, change the reg port
to a wire and assign it a constant value. (But this
is strongly discouraged.) (This corner case was pointed out (and fixed!) by
Rodrigo Melo.)
When splitting a long bit vector into a number of words of a given width, or concatenating multiple words into a single wider vector, it's possible that you will need to pad a few unused bits, usually with zeros. Typically, you compute the width difference or the division remainder to get the pad width, then create the pad with a replication:
localparam PAD_WIDTH = BIG_VECTOR_WIDTH % WORD_WIDTH;
localparam TOTAL_WIDTH = WORD_WIDTH * WORD_COUNT; // Alternate
localparam PAD_WIDTH = BIG_VECTOR_WIDTH - TOTAL_WIDTH; // Alternate
localparam PAD = {PAD_WIDTH{1'b0}};
However, this fails if no pad is needed. Variables of zero width cannot
exist in Verilog, and a zero width replication is also illegal in Verilog-2001.
Zero width concatenations are partially fixed in Verilog-2005, and thus
SystemVerilog, but the above PAD would still fail at linting and
elaboration since there are no other sized elements being concatenated.
We can eliminate zero from the possible PAD_WIDTH values by
instead returning WORD_WIDTH if the pad width would have been
zero. This works because a pad is necessarily between 0 and
WORD_WIDTH-1 bits wide. We can then check later and instantiate a
concatenation with or without a pad:
reg [BIG_VECTOR_WIDTH-1:0] baz;
reg [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] wibble, ...;
generate
if (PAD_WIDTH != WORD_WIDTH) begin
always @(*) begin
baz = {PAD, wibble, ....}; // Padding MSBs here
end
end
else begin
always @(*) begin
baz = {wibble, ... };
end
end
endgenerate
The Word Pad function implements this idiom, returning the pad width or `WORD_WIDTH` if the pad width would be zero.
While the Word Pad function enables padding of arbitrary length at arbitrary positions (e.g.: you could pad in the middle of a wide vector with a special pattern instead of only zeros), the common case is to pad with zeros at the least-significant bits.
We can zero-pad the least significant bits of a wider vector automatically by making sure the vector is initialized to zero, then using a vector part select to place the concatenated words into the wider vector at just after the location of the pad. This approach automatically handles the case where the pad width equals zero without defining impossible zero-width variables or replications.
localparam BIG_VECTOR_ZERO = {BIG_VECTOR_WIDTH{1'b0}};
localparam TOTAL_WIDTH = WORD_WIDTH * WORD_COUNT;
localparam PAD_WIDTH = BIG_VECTOR_WIDTH - TOTAL_WIDTH;
reg [BIG_VECTOR_WIDTH-1:0] baz = BIG_VECTOR_ZERO;
reg [WORD_WIDTH-1:0] wibble, ...;
always @(*) begin
baz [PAD_WIDTH +: TOTAL_WIDTH] = {wibble, ... };
end
Alternately, you could first concatenate the individual words into a vector
of TOTAL_WIDTH bits, then pass it through a Width Adjuster to widen it to
BIG_VECTOR_WIDTH, then pass that wider vector through a Bit Shifter to shift it left by
PAD_WIDTH, filling in the least-significant bits with any pattern
you wish.